The body and its basic physiological functions
In Eastern medicine, the concept of "organ", in addition to the anatomical organ in the understanding of Western medicine, includes its specific, physiological and mental functions (according to the teaching tsangfu).
All organs are divided into five Yin and five Yang, as well as dense . (zang) and hollow (ugh). To the yin organs (dense - zang) include liver, heart, spleen, lungs, kidneys; to the yang organs (hollow - ugh) - gallbladder, small intestine, large intestine, stomach, bladder.FIVE DENSE ORGANS
Heart. It includes the anatomical organ of the heart, carries out the functions of controlling blood and blood vessels, sweating, as well as consciousness, thoughts, thinking activity, regulates vital forces qi. The “window” of the heart is the tongue, the “mirror” is the face. When the function of the heart is normal, a person is in a clear consciousness, has quick thinking and strength of spirit. In the organ "heart" stands out pericardium- cardiac bag. Its functions include protecting the heart from outside threats, as well as blood circulation. Most changes in the heart manifest themselves in the pericardium (for example, when heat penetrates it, mental confusion occurs). A channel is connected to the heart organ small yin hearts passing through hands; interacts closely with him Yansky channel small intestine on the hands; its hollow organ is a subordinate of the heart.
Lungs. The lungs themselves descend into this concept, respiratory tract, nose, skin, body hair. The “lungs” organ controls the circulation of vital forces and fluids (“body juices”) in the body and controls breathing. The “window” of the lungs is the nose, the “mirror” is the hairline of the body. If lung function is impaired, skin changes occur (dryness, itching), cough, shortness of breath, as well as urination problems and swelling. Associated with the lungs Janski th channel (fu) of the colon.
Spleen. She is the second “mother” for the human body (the first “mother” is the kidney). The concept of “spleen” includes the anatomical organ spleen, muscles, adipose tissue and its inherent functions: management of nutrient transport, their processing and distribution (nutrition control); blood control and muscle control. The “window” of the spleen is the mouth, lips, the “mirror” is the muscles of the limbs. The spleen cleanses the blood, and the sufficiency of its vitality protects against bleeding. It warms the five storage organs zang(five dense organs), stores consciousness, determines the constitution of a person and his physical strength. When the functions of the spleen are impaired, hematomas occur, heavy menstruation occurs, muscles lose elasticity and quickly “get tired,” changes in taste and appetite occur, lips crack, memory and immunity are weakened. The spleen is connected to the stomach.
Liver. It includes the anatomical organ liver, the lateral sides of the body located at its level, as well as its inherent functions: distribution qi for each organ (filtration and transportation, excretion of various substances), storage and distribution of blood, control of bile excretion. She is in charge of the ligamentous apparatus (tendons, fascia), controls nervous system, vision and color perception. The “window” of the liver is the eyes, and the “mirror” is the nails. Impaired liver function leads to changes in the psyche, digestion, menstrual cycle. This can lead to depression, depression, sadness, irritability, anger, mild excitability, insomnia, dizziness; changes in blood clotting, blurred vision, muscle cramps. The liver is connected to the gallbladder.
Kidneys. In this concept, Eastern medicine includes the anatomical organ of the kidneys, ears, hair, bones, genitourinary system, lower back, as well as their inherent functions: accumulation of the jing substance, ensuring fertility, controlling the circulation of fluids, blood formation, assimilation of vital forces entering the body qi, development bone marrow and all brain tissue, bone and hair condition management, hearing control. In the right kidney there is sexual energy (in men - sperm production and the ability to conceive, in women - regular menstruation, the occurrence and development of pregnancy), as well as a source of vitality, in the left - hereditary energy. All gynecological diseases associated with the left kidney. The “window” of the kidneys is the ears, the “mirror” is the hair. The human will (spiritual activity) is associated with the kidneys. If kidney function is impaired, fatigue, lower back pain, tinnitus, dizziness, swelling, insomnia, memory loss, slow thinking, tooth and hair loss occur. Kidneys are associated with bladder.
FIVE HOLLOW ORGANS AND THREE HEATERS
Gallbladder. This concept includes the gallbladder, which stores bile that promotes digestion and controls the psyche. When the functions of the gallbladder are impaired, yellowness of the eyes and skin, a bitter taste in the mouth, vomiting, fear, insomnia, and intense dreams appear.
Stomach. This concept includes the stomach itself and its inherent functions - receiving and digesting food, its partial absorption. Violation of these functions is accompanied by nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, etc.
Small intestine. This anatomical organ is the small intestine and its inherent functions are the separation of “clean” and “cloudy” fluids (the “clean” part goes to the spleen, the “cloudy” part to the colon), as well as the removal of unnecessary (pathological) substances from the heart. With her illness, digestive and urinary problems may occur.
Colon. There is a special attitude towards this organ in Chinese medicine. It is considered a mirror of human health, because all the vital organs of the human body are projected onto the large intestine. The large intestine is responsible for the absorption of water, the formation of feces and its excretion. In case of dysfunction, the process of excretion is disrupted (diarrhea - when empty, constipation - when full). Consequently, toxicosis occurs in those areas where feces become stagnant and hardened, and the organ whose projection is located in this area suffers.
Bladder. Includes the bladder and its functions - storing fluid and excreting urine. If these functions are impaired, the amount of urine excreted decreases or control over its excretion is lost.
Three heaters. This organ does not have an anatomical representative, but functional role its great. The upper heater turns on the lungs and heart, controls breathing and blood circulation, and controls skin pores; the middle one includes the spleen and stomach, controls the digestion of food; the lower one includes the kidneys, liver, small intestine, colon and bladder; it carries out filtration, removes excess water and unnecessary substances from the body. Thus, the three heaters unite the five dense and five hollow organs and coordinate their work.
INTERACTION OF DENSE ORGANS
Hollow and dense organs are closely interconnected, forming single organism, which carries out homeostasis (constancy of the internal environment). Knowledge of the laws of their close relationship allows the doctor to recognize the disease, monitor its course, prescribe treatment, and carry out disease prevention.
Heart and lungs. The lungs are responsible for the flow of vital energy qi, and the heart controls the blood, ensuring its normal movement. If there is a shortage qi Weakness of heart function occurs, and thrombosis appears due to slow blood flow. A similar picture is observed with poor oxygen supply: cardiopulmonary failure and angina pectoris may occur. If the function of the heart is weakened, then blood stagnates in the vessels of the lungs, causing suffocation and coughing (cardiac asthma).
Heart and liver. They jointly solve the problem of moving blood. If there is a lack of blood in the heart, a lack of blood in the liver may also occur, which is accompanied by dizziness, flickering in the eyes, tremors of the limbs, etc. Together they also have an impact on the human psyche.
Heart and spleen If the function of the spleen is impaired, the flow of nutrients into the blood changes, palpitations, weakened memory, weak pulse, and unhealthy complexion are observed.
Heart and kidneys. The heart and kidneys constantly monitor each other. If it's not enough yang heart, then its fire does not descend and does not maintain the warmth of the kidneys; they, in turn, do not perform the function of moving water upward, palpitations and swelling are observed. If there is a shortage ing kidney is not supported yin heart, control over its yang function is weakened, palpitations, insomnia, and an abundance of dreams appear. They both participate in human mental activity.
Lungs and spleen. If the function of the spleen to move fluid is impaired, it stagnates, causing phlegm, hence cough and shortness of breath. And vice versa, if lung function is weakened, then the drainage of fluid downwards is impaired; accumulating, it adversely affects the function of the spleen, causing swelling, bloating, loose stool.
Liver and lungs. If the function of the lungs, which is to drain qi down, liver function is impaired, which causes fatigue, weakening of the voice, and mood swings. On the contrary, if order is violated qi liver, there is a change in lung function (chest pain, cough, often dry, maybe mixed with blood).
Kidneys and lungs. They jointly manage fluid exchange in the body. If their functions are impaired, water accumulation and shortness of breath may occur. With normal lung function, vital energy flows well qi(for example, oxygen), the amount of substance increases ching qi in the kidneys. In turn, normal passage qi controlled through the lungs by the kidneys. If there is a shortage qi kidneys are poorly accepted by the lungs qi, shortness of breath and suffocation occur.
Liver and spleen. The spleen produces and controls blood, moves nutrients, and the liver stores them. If a person is excited, liver function is impaired, this leads to dysregulation of spleen function, pain in the chest, lack of appetite, flatulence, and a feeling of fullness after eating. Conversely, if the function of the spleen is impaired, digestion worsens, blood production is weakened, which affects the liver.
Spleen and kidneys. Substance accumulates in the kidneys ching which is replenished after the birth of a person due to the nutritional substances of the spleen. At the same time, the transport function of the spleen depends on the warmth (yang) of the kidneys. Thus, if there is a lack yang kidneys are not heated yang spleen, and in case of deficiency yang spleen deficiency occurs yang kidney
Liver and kidneys. The liver accumulates blood, the kidneys drop the substance ching. The accumulation of blood in the liver depends on the amount of jing in the kidneys, and vice versa, the accumulation ching kidney depends on the blood accumulated in the liver. If its quantity is below a critical level, then ching the kidneys are not replenished; this, in turn, leads to a further decrease in the amount of blood, as a result of which ching again not replenished. Formed vicious circle, which must be interrupted by influencing therapeutic methods.
INTERACTION OF HOLLOW ORGANS
With the continuous transfer of nutrients through all five hollow organs and through the three heaters, each of them periodically fills and empties. If such free passage is disrupted, then disease occurs.
Based on theory yin-yang, each dense organ has a connection with a hollow organ. These connections determine internal relationships and the development of pathological syndromes.
Communication between heart and small intestine can be seen, for example, in diseases (fever) of the small intestine, when ulcerations appear in the mouth and tongue.
Communication between lungs and colon. For example, during attacks of suffocation accompanied by elevated temperature, constipation is observed. Many lung syndromes are treated through the colon.
Spleen and stomach- digestive organs. If the function of the spleen is impaired, then loss of appetite, a feeling of fullness after eating, general weakness and other complaints about the functioning of the stomach occur. A block occurs and the stomach qi can go in the opposite direction. Then vomiting and belching appear, which adversely affects the spleen.
The kidneys are connected to the bladder. Urine excretion is controlled by the kidneys. With sufficient kidney qi, the bladder retains water well; if the kidney qi is weak, then the functions bladder are violated.
The gallbladder is connected to the liver. It stores and secretes bile, which is produced in the liver, and supports digestion in the stomach and intestines. If liver function is impaired, a change in the formation of bile is observed; at the same time, disruption of the process of bile secretion negatively affects the liver.
We examined the relationship between all dense and hollow organs, their interaction with each other and separately. Knowledge and understanding of these relationships allows us to diagnose the disease, treat and prevent diseases.
Topic 21. Human organ systems and their functioning.
Study questions
1. Tissues of the human body.
2. Human organs and organ systems.
1. Tissues of the human body.
Tissues and organs of the body. Tissue is a group of cells, together with intercellular substance, that performs common functions and, at the same time, is characterized by a common structure and origin. A collection of different and interacting tissues form organs .
Histology. The structure of tissues of living organisms is studied by the science of histology.
4 main types (types) of fabrics. Science identifies 4 main types of tissue: epithelial; connecting; nervous; muscular.
Epithelial (cover) tissue. Epithelial (integumentary) tissue, or epithelium, is a boundary layer of cells that lines the integument of the body, the mucous membranes of all internal organs and cavities, and also forms the basis of many glands.
Functions epithelial tissue . The epithelium separates the organism (internal environment) from the external environment, but at the same time serves as an intermediary in the interaction of the organism with the environment. Main functions: Integument; Protective; excretory; Secretory.
Regeneration of epithelial tissue cells. Epithelial tissue cells live for a short time and are quickly replaced by new ones (this is called regeneration).
Connective tissue (Collagen). In general, connective tissue makes up what is called the internal environment of the body. This fabric is very diverse and presented various types- from dense and loose forms to blood and lymph, the cells of which are in liquid.
Types of connective tissue in the body. From this tissue are formed: bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, blood, fat. Therefore, its types are: bone, cartilaginous, fatty, liquid, loose, reticular.
Functions connective tissue . Support; Protective; Transport; Storage.
Bone tissue. The bone tissue that forms the bones of the skeleton is very strong. It maintains body shape (constitution) and protects organs located in the skull, chest and pelvic cavities, and also participates in mineral metabolism.
Cartilage tissue. It consists of cells (chondrocytes) and intercellular substance (cartilage matrix), characterized by increased elasticity. This fabric performs a supporting function, because forms the bulk of cartilage.
Blood and lymph. This is a liquid connective tissue consisting of formed elements (cells) and plasma (liquid with organic and mineral substances dissolved in it - serum and fibrinogen protein). Forms the circulatory system of the entire body.
Adipose tissue. Adipose tissue refers to loose connective tissue. Its cells are large and filled with fat. This fabric is divided into two types: white and brown.
Functions of adipose tissue. Nutritious; Protective; Shape-forming; Thermoregulating.
Muscle tissue and its types. Muscle tissue has excitability and the ability to actively contract under the influence of the nervous system and certain substances. Microscopic differences allow us to distinguish two types of this tissue - smooth (unstriated) and striated (striated).
Smooth muscle tissue. Smooth muscle tissue has a cellular structure. It forms the muscular membranes of the walls internal organs(intestines, uterus, bladder, etc.), circulatory and lymphatic vessels; its contraction occurs involuntarily.
Striated muscle tissue. Striated muscle tissue consists of muscle fibers, each of which is represented by many thousands of cells, fused, in addition to their nuclei, into one structure. It forms skeletal muscles.
Heart (cardiac muscle). Heart muscle is a type of muscle tissue. In cardiac muscle tissue, adjacent muscle fibers are interconnected; the fibers have a small number of nuclei located in the center of the fiber. Cardiac tissue has automaticity - the ability to involuntarily contract, which ensures the pushing of blood through the chambers of the heart.
Functions of muscle tissue. Smooth muscle tissue performs the following functions: provides involuntary contractions of the walls of internal organs and raises hair on the skin. Cross-striped muscle tissue performs the following functions: provides voluntary body movements, facial expressions, and speech. Important function: automation of cardiovascular tissue.
Nervous tissue. Nervous tissue consists of two types of cells: nerve (neurons) and glial. Glial cells are closely adjacent to the neuron, performing supporting, nutritional, secretory and protective functions.
Nerve cells (neurons) and intercellular substance – neuroglia. From cells nerve tissue head and spinal cord, as well as nerves. Nerve cells - neurons - consist of a body and processes. The intercellular substance of nervous tissue - neuroglia forms auxiliary cells or companion cells.
Functions of nervous tissue. Higher nervous activity. Body communication
with the external environment. Centers of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. Properties of excitability and conductivity.
2. Human organs and organ systems.
Organism. An organism is a certain complex or system that reacts as a whole to various changes in the external environment.
Organs in the human body. Usually an organ consists of several types of tissues, but one predominates. For example, the main tissue of the glands is epithelial, and the main tissue of the muscles is muscular. In the liver, lungs, kidneys, glands, the main “working” tissue is epithelial, in bones it is connective, in the brain it is nervous.
General structure of human organs. Living organisms are built from special chemical compounds - organic substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids). They are part of any living cell. Cell substances form ordered structures - organelles, which ensure the vital processes of the cell.
Organ system concept. Organs that perform a single function and have general plan structure and development, are combined into organ systems. All organ systems are interconnected and form a single organism.
10 main organ systems of the human body. There are 10 main organ systems in the human body: Integumentary system; Musculoskeletal system; Digestive system; Circulatory system; Lymphatic system; Respiratory system; Excretory system; Reproductive system; Nervous system; Endocrine system.
Integumentary system of human organs. The integumentary system includes the skin and mucous membranes lining the oral cavity, respiratory tract, and digestive organs.
Composition and functions of the integumentary system. The integumentary system includes: skin and mucous membranes: oral cavity; respiratory tract; digestive organs. Main function: Protective. Protects the body from: drying out, temperature fluctuations, damage, penetration of toxic substances; penetration of pathogenic microorganisms.
Musculoskeletal system of human organs. The musculoskeletal system consists of the skeleton and the muscles attached to it. It allows a person to stand, move, perform complex work, and protects internal organs from damage.
Circulatory system of the body. The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels.
Tasks of the circulatory system. This system supplies the organs of our body with nutrients and oxygen, removes carbon dioxide and other unnecessary waste products from them, and performs a protective function by participating in the immune system.
Humoral regulation. The regulation of vital processes in the body through body fluids (blood, lymph, tissue fluid, saliva) with the help of hormones secreted by cells, organs, and tissues is called humoral regulation.
Blood composition. Plasma. Leukocytes. Platelets.
Lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is formed by lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels. Takes part in the formation of immunity and maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body.
Structure of the lymphatic system. The structure of the lymphatic system includes: lymphatic capillaries; lymphatic vessels; lymph nodes; lymphatic trunks and ducts.
Digestive system. The digestive system consists of: the digestive tract; digestive and functional glands.
Basic functions of the digestive system. The functions of the digestive system are to digest food and absorb nutrients into the blood.
Human respiratory system. The respiratory system consists of the respiratory tract (nasal cavity, nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi) and the respiratory part - the lungs.
Respiratory functions. Function respiratory systems We ensure gas exchange between the external environment and the body.
Gas exchange. Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli of the lungs, and is normally aimed at capturing oxygen from the inhaled air and releasing carbon dioxide formed in the body into the external environment.
Excretory system. The excretory or excretory system in biology is a set of organs that remove from the body excess water, metabolic products, salts, as well as toxic substances that have entered the body from the outside or formed in it.
Structure and functions of the excretory system. The excretory system is formed by the kidneys, which produce urine containing harmful products metabolism, and urinary organs - ureters, bladder and urethra.
Reproductive system. The reproductive system is a set of organs that ensure sexual reproduction of the body.
The main function of the reproductive system. The function of the reproductive system is to ensure the process of childbirth.
Sex cells - gametes. In the reproductive system, sex cells - gametes (sperm or eggs) are formed, and fertilization and development of the fertilized egg occurs.
General structure of the reproductive system. The reproductive system consists of the gonads, internal and external genitalia.
Nervous system. The nervous system regulates the functioning of organs, ensures their coordinated activity and adaptation to environmental conditions.
Structure and function of the nervous system. The nervous system consists of: the brain; spinal cord; nerves and nerve ganglia extending from them. Basic function: thanks to the nervous system, a person’s mental activity is carried out and his behavior is determined.
Endocrine system. This is a system for regulating the activity of internal organs through hormones secreted by endocrine cells directly into the blood, or diffusing through the intercellular space into neighboring cells.
Structure and functions of the endocrine system. System formed by endocrine glands. These include: the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands and some other glands. It is the endocrine glands that secrete hormones.
Demos:
Human integumentary system.
Skin and mucous tissue of the nose.
Bone tissue.
Cartilage tissue.
Muscle tissue.
Raising hair on the skin.
Cardiomuscular tissue.
Nervous tissue.
Human internal organs.
Integumentary system.
Musculoskeletal system.
Digestive system.
Circulatory system.
Respiratory system.
Excretory system.
Nervous system.
Endocrine system.
Security questions:
Name the main tissues of the human body.
Define biological tissue.
Define an organ in the structure of the body.
Name the 4 main types (types) of fabrics.
Explain the concept of epithelial (integumentary) tissue and name its functions.
Formulate what is the peculiarity of the regeneration of epithelial tissue cells.
Expand the concept of connective tissue (collagen).
Name the types of connective tissue in the body.
Name the functions of connective tissue.
Expand the concepts of bone and cartilage tissue.
Explain the concept of adipose tissue and name its functions.
Explain the concept of muscle tissue and name its types.
Formulate the features of smooth muscle tissue.
Formulate the features of striated muscle tissue.
Prove with reason that the heart muscle is a type of muscle tissue.
Name the functions of muscle tissue.
Formulate the features of nervous tissue, nerve cells (neurons) and intercellular substance - neuroglia.
Name the functions of nervous tissue.
Name the main organs and organ systems of humans.
Formulate the concept of the human body.
Reveal the general structure of human organs.
Expand the concept of an organ system.
Name the 10 main organ systems of the human body.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the integumentary system of human organs.
Name the composition and functions of the integumentary system.
Formulate the features of the device and operation musculoskeletal system human organs.
Name the components of the musculoskeletal system.
Name the functions of the musculoskeletal system.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the body’s circulatory system.
Name the tasks of the circulatory system.
Expand the concept humoral regulation.
Prove that circulatory system is the basis of the internal environment of the body.
Name the composition of blood.
Expand the features of the concepts “plasma”, “leukocytes”, “platelets”.
Name the main functions of blood.
Expand functional features tissue fluid and lymph.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the digestive organ system.
Explain the general structure of the digestive system.
Name the main functions of the digestive system.
Name the main components of a normal diet.
Prove that digestion is a process of physical and chemical processing of food.
Name the three parts of the digestive system.
Name the functions oral cavity, teeth and salivary glands.
Name the taste zones of the tongue.
Name the functions of the intestines and stomach.
Name the functions of the pancreas and liver.
Name the functions of different parts of the digestive tract.
Formulate the meaning of saliva and its enzymes: ptyalin and maltase.
Name the chemical features of the process of processing food with saliva.
Name the main components of saliva.
Open the esophagus device.
Explain the concept of esophageal peristalsis.
Tell us about the structure of the stomach.
Formulate the features of the physical and chemical process of food processing by the functions of the human stomach.
Tell us about the structure of the intestines and the functions of the digestive glands.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the human respiratory system.
Prove with examples the importance of breathing for life.
Name the functions of the respiratory organs.
Reveal the biological significance of breathing.
Expand the concept and significance of gas exchange and the trachea.
Expand the meaning and structure of the lungs.
Name the biological features of the respiratory process.
Expand the concept of vital capacity of the lungs.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the excretory system.
Expand the concept of the excretory system in biology.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the reproductive system.
Name the main functions of the reproductive system.
Expand the concept of gametes.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the nervous system.
Formulate the features of the structure and functioning of the endocrine system.
Literature:
1. Akhmedova T.I., Mosyagina O.V. Natural science: Textbook / T.I. Akhmedova, O.V. Mosyagina. – M.: RAP, 2012. – P. 367-392.
The organism is a single whole. With the help of the nervous system, communication is established between all organs of the body. Changes in the activity of one organ affect the functioning of the entire organism. The functioning of all body systems is under the control of the central nervous system, which ensures the consistency of their work in accordance with constantly changing environmental conditions. A living organism is a single whole in which the activity of cells, tissues, organs, physiological systems coordinated and connected. The body has the ability to self-regulate functions. The integrity of the body is also maintained through humoral regulation through the blood. The humoral connection between organs is under the control of the nervous system. The concept of the body as a single whole includes the mutual connection of the physical and mental. For example, underdevelopment thyroid gland leads to mental retardation. Children born with an underdeveloped brain experience dementia.
An organism can only exist through constant interaction with its external environment. For normal functioning, the body must be balanced with environmental conditions. The body’s connection with the external environment occurs continuously due to simple and complex relationships:
- simple ones are carried out with the participation of innate unconditioned reflexes,
- complex - due to conditioned reflexes acquired throughout life.
The human body interacts, along with the general natural environment, also with social environment. The social environment has a huge influence on a person. In human interactions with the social environment, the most important role belongs to the so-called second signaling system, which underlies human speech and thinking.
The totality of organ systems and apparatuses forms an integral human body, in which all its constituent parts are interconnected, while the main role in unifying the body belongs to cardiovascular, nervous and endocrine systems. These systems act in concert and provide neurohumoral regulation of body functions. The nervous system transmits signals in the form of nerve impulses, and the endocrine system releases hormonal substances that carry blood to target organs.
The interaction between the cells of the nervous and endocrine systems is carried out using different cellular mediators formed from amino acids (liberins, endorphins, etc.). Produced in the nervous system in small concentrations, they have an extremely large effect on the endocrine apparatus.In addition to joint regulation of the body’s vital functions, the nervous and endocrine systems can act independently.
Self-regulation physiological functions - the main mechanism for maintaining the vital functions of the body at a relatively constant level. The relative constancy of the internal environment in humans is maintained by neurohumoral physiological mechanisms that regulate the activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, digestive organs, kidneys and sweat glands, which ensure the removal of metabolic products from the body. Thus, the nervous and endocrine systems ensure the dynamic development of the body and the stability of its basic physiological functions.
Basic biological functions of the human body:
- homeostasis function, maintaining the parameters of the intercellular environment of the body
- function of exotrophy (external nutrition)
- function of maintaining the purity of the intercellular environment of the body (endoecology)
- function of prolonged, intense physical activity (locomotion)
- stress function
- short-term adaptation function
- long-term adaptation function
Ways to regulate body functions. In the body, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems work as a single unit. Their coordinated work is regulated in two ways:
- humoral, carried out endocrine system by using chemicals through body fluids (blood, lymph, intercellular fluid)
- nervous– through the nervous system.
Nervous and humoral regulation ensure the interconnection and coordinated work of all organs and systems. Therefore, the body functions as a single whole.
Self-regulation is that any deviation from normal composition The internal environment of the body includes nervous and humoral processes that regulate its return to its original level. For example, an increase in the amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood includes mechanisms of nervous and humoral regulation that help reduce its amount and return to normal level; or weakening of the heart and a drop in blood pressure include neurohumoral mechanisms that normalize cardiovascular activity, i.e., increase heart function and increase blood pressure. Self-regulation of functions also occurs on cellular level. For example, if a cell produces an excess amount of protein, the rate of its synthesis slows down.
The principle of nervism. The unity of the body and its connection with the external environment is carried out mainly due to the activity of the nervous system, especially its higher parts - the cortex cerebral hemispheres and subcortical formations. The definition of nervism was first given in 1883 by I. P. Pavlov in his doctoral dissertation “Centrifugal Nerves of the Heart”: “Nervism should be understood as a physiological direction that seeks to extend the influence of the nervous system to the greatest possible number of body activities.”
The activity of the nervous system is reflexive character. Reflex is the body's response to stimulation carried out by the central nervous system. The path along which nervous excitation is transmitted during a reflex is reflex arc. The reflex arc includes the following sections:
- receptors,
- afferent (sensitive) nerve fibers,
- part of the central nervous system,
- efferent (motor) nerve fibers,
- working body
In a reflex arc, a nerve impulse is conducted in one direction - from the afferent neuron to the efferent one. There are simple and complex reflex arcs. consists of sensory, motor and one interneuron.
In a difficult In the reflex arc, two or more interneurons are located between the afferent and efferent neurons.
Organism(from Lat. organise" - I arrange, give a slim look) - this is a holistic biological system individual living being. An organism has specific properties that make it an independent unit of living matter (metabolism, irritability, excitability, reactivity, variability, ability to reproduce itself, reliable functioning, etc.). Elementary manifestations of life activity at the cellular level - irritability, excitability, reactivity - are at the same time the most important biological properties of the whole organism.
Physiological reactions and properties of the whole organism
Metabolism, irritability, excitability. Being an independent unit of living matter, the organism responds to external and internal influences as a single whole. Therefore, it can be considered as an integral self-regulating system. Self-regulation ability- one of the main properties of the body, which allows for adaptive reactions while maintaining the dynamic constancy of its internal environment.
The basis of the body's vital functions is metabolism. In living matter, metabolism has acquired a fundamentally new qualitative content. By destroying the organic substances of the external environment in the process of metabolism, the body synthesizes new substances in which free energy is accumulated. In other words, the body not only exchanges substances, energy and information with the external environment, but thanks to the process of energy accumulation it opposes itself to the destructive influences of the environment and maintains its qualitatively new, living state.
Food substances serve as a source of energy for the body of animals and humans. They are used for the synthesis of fats, carbohydrates and species-specific proteins. The species specificity of an organism is determined by the metabolic characteristics characteristic of each specific species of living beings.
Common property living matter is irritability.
Irritability is the ability of a living system (cell, tissue, organ or whole organism) to respond to the action of stimuli by changing the level of physiological activity.
Irritants (physical, chemical, physicochemical) cause irritation under certain conditions (strength, duration of the stimulus, level of excitability of living tissue). All living tissues are excitable. However, the degree of specificity of the recorded responses is different. The responses of nervous, muscle and glandular tissues are characterized by the greatest specificity. For example, nervous and muscle tissue respond to the actions of stimuli with a specific wave physiological process - excitation.
Excitability- this is the ability of a cell, tissue, or entire organism to respond to the action of a stimulus with an excitation reaction.
Excitation is a form of response to the action of stimuli from the external and internal environment, accompanied by the generation of a wave, spreading action potential.
The internal content of excitation is a change in the intensity of vital processes in the cells of excitable tissues. For nervous tissue, the process of excitation is the main form of manifestation of vital activity. For muscle and glandular tissues, excitation is only the initial stage of their specific activity, i.e. contractile or secretory function.
In nervous tissue, excitation is opposed by a process that is opposite in physiological content - inhibition. Thus, if the excitation of a nerve cell brings the innervated structure into an active state, then the process of inhibition causes the cessation of its activity. The inhibitory process itself is an independent form of electrical activity of the cell membrane, one of the acts of vital activity of a nerve cell.
The measure of excitability is determined by the minimum strength of the stimulus that can cause excitement. This is the threshold force, or the threshold of irritation. The lower the threshold of irritation, the higher the excitability will be. The highest excitability to adequate stimuli, i.e. to stimuli that have become specific to a particular perceptive apparatus (for example, sound for auditory receptors). The nerve elements of the retina perceive the energy of light radiation equal to several quanta. To excite the olfactory receptors, a few molecules of an odorous substance are enough.
Physiological processes, functions, mechanisms
The basis of the life activity of an organism is physiological processes - a complex form of interaction and unity of biochemical and physiological reactions, which has received a qualitatively new (biological) content in living matter. Physiological processes underlie physiological functions. Physiological functions manifest the vital activity of both the whole organism and its individual parts. Physiological functions, with some degree of convention, can be divided into somatic (bodily, characteristic of animals) and vegetative (characteristic of both animals and plants). Somatic functions are the body's responses (mainly motor) to the action of stimuli from the external and internal environment. Vegetative functions are functions that ensure growth, reproduction, and metabolism. The normal functioning of an organ or organism as a whole is closely related to its structure and morphological features. Any disturbance in the structure leads to a dysfunction.
The intensity and severity of physiological reactions in response to stimuli depends on individual characteristics and the genetic program of human development. Modern genetics gives grounds to assert that hereditary inclinations determine development physical qualities- speed, strength, endurance. The hereditary nature of the qualities and abilities of an outstanding sprinter or marathon runner is as much a reality as the genetic program that determines physique, eye color or hair color.
Reflex reactions. One of the forms of manifestation of vital activity is a reflex - the body’s reaction to irritation, realized through the central nervous system. The energy of the stimulus causes a reflex response through a system of receptors, nerve conductors, the central nervous system and executive organs.
In the elementary circuit of a reflex, one can distinguish the receptor (perceiving the stimulus) part, the conductor section, the central apparatus for analyzing the stimulus and the executive device (effector). The effector is connected to the central regulatory apparatus through reverse afferentation. Thus, a muscle contracting during a reflex response signals its condition to the central apparatus for regulating movements. This signaling is carried out along afferent nerves coming from the proprioceptors to the cortical projections of the motor analyzer and the cerebellum.
The development of reflex theory is an instructive example of changing views on the essence of the same phenomenon. At the time of its emergence (R. Descartes, mid-17th century), the reflex was considered as a machine-like act, carried out on the principle of mechanical reflection of the action by the body external cause. At the beginning of the 20th century, the reflex theory acquired biological content. The reflex began to be viewed as an adaptive act through which the body’s needs are realized and ultimately ensure its survival.
Modern representations about the reflex are based on the signal-regulatory principle. A reflex is considered as a system of body responses to external influences, conditioned not only by signals from the external environment, but also by feedback (sensory corrections) coming to the central nervous system from the executive apparatus. Identification of the initial (starting) and final (executive) links of a reflex with direct and feedback connections is a schematic picture of complex interactions in a reflex response, carried out according to a ring principle. From the reflex arc - to the ring principle of control, from the machine-like response - to the expedient response, which includes the current assessment of the interaction of the organism and the environment - this is the path of development of the doctrine of the reflex.
Homeostasis. The doctrine of homeostasis was founded by the famous French naturalist C. Bernard in the second half of the 19th century. In 1878, he substantiated the idea of the relative constancy of the internal environment of living organisms.
Homeostasis- this is the ability to maintain relative constancy of the composition of the internal environment and the properties of the body.
The constancy of the internal environment, according to C. Bernard, is a condition for the free life of the organism. In 1929, the American physiologist W. Cannon showed that the body’s ability to maintain a constant internal environment is the result of the relative stability and stability of the body’s systems. We also owe the term “homeostasis” to V. Cannon (from the Greek moios - similar and stasis - motionless). The constancy of the internal environment of the body (blood, tissue fluid) and the stability of physiological functions are the result of the implementation of homeostatic mechanisms.
Physicochemical and physiological processes of maintaining homeostasis at the cellular level are aimed at eliminating or significantly changing the disturbing influences of the external and internal environment. Violation of cellular homeostasis leads to damage to the structural elements of the cell, followed by its death or degeneration (for example, the development of a cancerous tumor when exposed to ionizing radiation). Cellular, tissue, organ and other forms of homeostasis are coordinated by neurohumoral factors, as well as a general change in the level of metabolic processes.
The boundaries of homeostasis are dynamic, and the principle of equilibrium itself cannot be applied to the work of a living system, because the state of homeostasis cannot be reduced to passive resistance or submission to external influences. This is the result of compensatory adjustments that are actively programmed in the body in response to the entire set of external and internal influences. When external conditions change, the living system does not balance with them, but actively counteracts their influence.
Using free energy, the body performs constant work aimed at maintaining stable imbalance, which, according to E. Bauer, is the main content of homeostasis. A state of stable disequilibrium is a necessary condition for the survival of an organism in changing environmental conditions. At the same time, shifts in individual functional systems go beyond homeostasis.
When performing high-power muscular work, the pulse rate can increase to 200 beats per minute or more, the content of lactic acid in the blood can reach 150 - 200 mg%, i.e. go far beyond homeostatic constants. Note that the most stable biological constants (body temperature, concentration of hydrogen ions in blood plasma, osmotic pressure of blood and tissue fluid, etc.) are also dynamic, changing under the influence of external and internal environmental factors.
Maintaining homeostasis is the only possible way the existence of any open system in constant contact with the external environment. The ability to maintain internal constancy in conditions of continuous communication with the external environment is a property that determines the fundamental difference between living and nonliving things. The active manifestation of this property and the dynamism of homeostatic parameters have significantly reduced the organism’s dependence on external influences and made it an independent unit of living matter capable of surviving in changing environmental conditions.
Adaptation. Adaptation (from the Latin adaptatio - adaptation) in itself general view can be defined as a set of adaptive reactions and morphological changes that allow the body to maintain the relative constancy of the internal environment in changing environmental conditions. In humans, adaptation acts as a property of the body, which is ensured by automated self-adjusting, self-regulating systems - cardiovascular, respiratory, excretory, etc. In each of these systems, several levels of adaptation can be distinguished - from subcellular to organ. But its ultimate meaning is not lost at any level - it is an increase in resilience, the stability of the system to environmental factors.
Adaptation- this is an effective and economical, adequate adaptive activity of the body to the influence of environmental factors. In adaptation, two opposing trends can be distinguished: on the one hand, distinct changes affecting, to one degree or another, all systems of the body, on the other, the preservation of homeostasis, the transfer of the body to a new level of functioning under the indispensable condition of maintaining dynamic balance.
According to the ideas of P.K. Anokhin, adaptation should be considered as the formation of a new functional system, which contains an adaptive effect. The functional system itself acts as a complex physiological mechanism, the essential content of which is to obtain a useful adaptive result. A typical example of adaptation with a positive result is adaptation to physical activity.
The systemic organization of adaptive reactions presupposes the possibility of their implementation both at the level of a physiologically mature organism and long before the onset of physiological maturity. The concept of systemogenesis by P.K. Anokhina gives an explanation for this: in the course of individual development, systems are first formed that ensure the survival of the child after birth. When assessing the adaptive capabilities of children and adolescents to physical activity It is necessary to highlight not so much absolute changes in the work of individual systems and organs, but rather indicators of their consistency, the integrative function that ensures the adaptation effect itself. The higher the level of integration and coordination of complex regulatory processes, the more effective the adaptation.
Improving adaptation mechanisms is, first of all, improving regulatory processes and the relationships of physiological functions. Adaptation of a whole organism does not exclude, but presupposes that functional and structural changes occur both at the organ and cellular levels.
Adaptation at the cellular level is associated with the activation of energy and plastic processes. The reserves of adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP) are primarily affected. The ratio of ATP breakdown products to its remaining amount increases. The results of an increase in ATP energy exchange products are well known: they activate oxidative phosphorylation, i.e. storing energy in macroergs (high-energy compounds). This, in turn, leads to intensive biosynthesis along the chain: DNA - RNA - protein. The biomass of the organ increases, and the system for transmitting the action of the damaging agent to the cytoplasm through the enzyme adenylate cyclase built into the membrane is activated.
The adenylate cyclase molecule is located in the cell membrane in such a way that part of it goes outside and part goes inside. Under the influence of an external signal, adenylate cyclase is activated and catalyzes the formation of cyclic adenosine monophosphoric acid (AMP) from adenosine triphosphoric acid. The concentration of cyclic AMP increases 10 - 20 times.
The main mechanism of cellular adaptation is to maintain the constancy of the main energy compound - ATP. This constancy is ensured by enhancing the fat-mobilizing effect of adrenal hormones, as well as increasing the efficiency of the oxidative cycle (Krebs tricarboxylic acid cycle).
Tissues of the same or different structure and functions are combined into organs.
Organ is a part of the body that has a certain shape, structure, place in it and performs one or more functions.
The human body has respiratory organs(respiratory tract, lungs), blood circulation(heart and blood vessels), digestion(stomach, intestines, etc.), supports(bones), movement(muscles, ligaments, tendons), discharge(kidneys, skin), reproduction(different in structure for men and women), sense organs(eyes, ears, skin, etc.).
They are governed by authorities nervous(brain and spinal cord) and endocrine(endocrine glands) systems.
To perform certain vital functions, the organs of the human body are combined into organ systems. According to their own functional purposes they are divided into systems - respiratory, blood circulation, digestive, musculoskeletal, sexual, nervous, excretory, endocrine glands.Material from the site
A person needs everything organs and systems, although some of them perform a more complex and more important role for the body, while others perform a simpler, more specific role. The human body has functional systems. These are permanent or temporary associations of different organ systems in order to perform a specific function. For example, respiratory And transport systems(circulation and blood) are combined into one functional system to provide the body with oxygen. They are also functionally combined with each other digestive And transport systems.
The constant anatomical and functional relationship and “cooperation” of cells, tissues, organs and organ systems create a complex, unique system - human body(With gr. tool, instrument) (Fig. 14). She lives according to the laws of unity, integrity, self-regulation and interaction with the environment under the guidance of nervous And humoral systems.
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Human organ systems brief report
Human organs and organ systems briefly
Biology.organs.organ system brief summary
Human tissues and organ systems briefly
Human organ system summary
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