Five nouns, five verbs, five adjectives and five adverbs that can be used to describe an earthquake. Five nouns, five verbs, five adjectives and five adverbs that can be used to describe an earthquake Modern explanatory dictionary

EARTHQUAKE, noun. Geogr. tremors and vibrations earth's surface, arising as a result of sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust and upper mantle and transmitted over long distances

Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

EARTHQUAKE, earthquakes, cf. A strong vibration of the earth's crust caused by volcanic or tectonic causes.

Modern explanatory dictionary

EARTHQUAKE, tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface, resulting from sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust or upper mantle and transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. The intensity of earthquakes is assessed in seismic scores (see Seismic scale), and magnitude is used for energy classification of earthquakes (see Richter scale). Two main seismic belts are known: the Pacific, encircling the shores of the Pacific Ocean in a ring, and the Mediterranean, stretching across the south of Eurasia from the Iberian Peninsula to the west to the Malayan Archipelago. in the east. Within the oceans, mid-ocean ridges are characterized by significant seismic activity. The most famous catastrophic earthquakes: Lisbon 1755, California 1906, Messina 1908, Ashgabat 1948, Chilean 1960, Armenian 1988, Iranian 1990.

EARTHQUAKE, tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface, resulting from sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust and upper mantle and transmitted over long distances. General information Strong earthquakes are catastrophic in nature, second only to typhoons in the number of victims and significantly (tens of times) ahead of volcanic eruptions. The material damage of one devastating earthquake can amount to hundreds of millions of dollars. The number of weak earthquakes is much greater than that of strong ones. Thus, out of hundreds of thousands of earthquakes that occur annually on Earth, only a few are catastrophic. They release about 1020 J of potential seismic energy, which is only 0.01% of the Earth's thermal energy radiated into space. Where and why earthquakes occur The territorial distribution of earthquakes is uneven. It is determined by movement and interaction lithospheric plates . The main seismic belt, in which up to 80% of all seismic energy is released, is located in the Pacific Ocean in the region of deep-sea trenches, where cold lithospheric plates move under the continent. The rest of the energy is released in the Eurasian fold belt in places where the Eurasian plate collides with the Indian and African plates and in the areas of mid-ocean ridges under conditions of lithospheric stretching (see Rift system). Earthquake parameters The sources of earthquakes are located at depths of up to 700 km, but the majority (3/4) of seismic energy is released in sources located at depths of up to 70 km. The size of the source of catastrophic earthquakes can reach 100x1000 km. Its position and the place where mass movement begins (hypocenter) are determined by recording seismic waves arising during earthquakes (in weak earthquakes, the focus and hypocenter coincide). The projection of the hypocenter onto the earth's surface is called the epicenter. Around it is the area of ​​greatest destruction (epicentral, or pleistoseist, area). Intensity of earthquakes The intensity of earthquakes on the surface is measured in points and depends on the depth of the source and the magnitude of the earthquake, which serves as a measure of its energy. The maximum known value of magnitude is close to 9. Magnitude is related to the total energy of an earthquake, but this relationship is not direct, but logarithmic, with an increase in magnitude by one unit, the energy increases 100 times, i.e., with a shock of magnitude 6, 100 times more energy is released than at magnitude 5, and 10,000 more than at magnitude 4. Often in the media reporting on seismic disasters, the magnitude scale (Richter scale) is identified with the seismic intensity scale, measured in seismic points, because journalists Those reporting a magnitude of 12 on the Richter scale are confusing magnitude with intensity. The intensity is greater, the closer the source is to the surface, so, for example, if the source of an earthquake with a magnitude of 8 is located at a depth of 10 km, then on the surface the intensity will be 11-12 points; at the same magnitude, but at a depth of 40-50 km, the impact on the surface decreases to 9-10 points. Seismic scales Seismic movements are complex but can be classified. There are a large number of seismic scales, which can be reduced to three main groups. In Russia, the 12-point scale MSK-64 (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik), which is the most widely used in the world, is used, dating back to the Mercali-Cancani scale (1902), in Latin American countries the 10-point Rossi-Forel scale (1883) has been adopted, in Japan - 7-point scale. The intensity assessment, which is based on the everyday consequences of an earthquake, which are easily distinguishable even by an inexperienced observer, is different on the seismic scales of different countries. For example, in Australia, one of the degrees of shaking is compared to “the way a horse rubs against a veranda post”; in Europe, the same seismic effect is described as “bells begin to ring”; in Japan, “an overturned stone lantern” appears. In the simplest and most convenient form, sensations and observations are presented in a schematized short descriptive scale (MSK version) that can be used by everyone. Score Manifestation on the surface 1 Not felt by anyone, recorded only by seismic instruments 2 Sometimes felt by people in a calm state 3 Felt by a few, more strongly manifested indoors on the upper floors 4 Felt by many (especially indoors), some wake up at night. Possible clinking of dishes, rattling of glass, slamming of doors 5 It is felt by almost everyone, many wake up at night. Swaying of hanging objects, cracks in window glass and plaster 6 Felt by everyone, plaster crumbling, slight destruction of buildings 7 Cracks in plaster and breaking off of individual pieces, thin cracks in walls. Tremors are felt in cars 8 Large cracks in walls, falling pipes, monuments. Cracks on steep slopes and damp soil 9 Collapse of walls, roofs in some buildings, ruptures of underground pipelines 10 Collapses of many buildings, bending of railway rails. Landslides, collapses, cracks (up to 1 m) in the ground 11 Numerous wide cracks in the ground, landslides in the mountains, collapse of bridges, only a few stone buildings remain stable 12 Significant changes in terrain, deviation of river flows, objects thrown into the air, total destruction of structures How The influence of earthquakes spreads far Strong earthquakes can be felt at a distance of a thousand or more kilometers. Thus, in aseismic Moscow, tremors with an intensity of up to 3 points are observed from time to time, serving as an “echo” of the catastrophic Carpathian earthquakes in the Vrancea mountains in Romania, the same earthquakes in Moldova, close to Romania, are felt as 7-8 points. Duration of earthquakes The duration of earthquakes varies; often the number of tremors forms a swarm of earthquakes, including preceding (foreshocks) and subsequent (aftershocks) tremors. The distribution of the strongest shock (the main earthquake) within the swarm is random. The magnitude of the strongest aftershock is 1.2 less than that of the main shock; these aftershocks are accompanied by their own secondary series of subsequent shocks. For example, an earthquake that occurred on the island. Lissa in the Mediterranean lasted three years, the total number of tremors for the period 1870-73 was 86 thousand. Catastrophic earthquakes Of the huge number of earthquakes that occur annually, only one has a magnitude equal to or greater than 8, ten - 7-7.9, one hundred - 6-6.9. Any earthquake with a magnitude of St. 7 could be a major disaster. However, it may go unnoticed if it occurs in a desert area. Thus, the enormous natural disaster - the Gobi-Altai earthquake (1957; magnitude 8.5, intensity 11-12 points) - remains almost unstudied, although due to the enormous force, small depth of the source and lack of vegetation, this earthquake left the most a complete and diverse picture (2 lakes appeared, a huge thrust was instantly formed in the form of a stone wave up to 10 m high, the maximum displacement along the fault reached 300 m, etc.). An area 50-100 km wide and 500 km long (like Denmark or Holland) was completely destroyed. If this earthquake had occurred in a densely populated area, the death toll could have been in the millions. The consequences of one of the most powerful earthquakes (magnitude could be 9), which occurred in the oldest region of Europe - Lisbon - in 1755 and covered an area of ​​over 2.5 million km2, were so enormous (50 thousand out of 230 thousand citizens died in the harbor a rock grew, the coastal bottom became dry land, the outline of the coast of Portugal changed) and so amazed the Europeans that Voltaire responded to it with “The Poem on the Death of Lisbon” (1756, Russian translation 1763). Apparently, the impression of this catastrophe was so strong that Voltaire challenged the doctrine of pre-established world harmony in his poem. Strong earthquakes, no matter how rare they are, never leave contemporaries indifferent. Thus, in W. Shakespeare’s tragedy “Romeo and Juliet” (1595), the nurse remembers the earthquake of 1580, which, apparently, the author himself survived. Why do people die in earthquakes? If earthquakes occur at sea, they can cause destructive waves - tsunamis, which most often devastate the Pacific coast, as happened in 1933 in Japan and in 1952 in Kamchatka. Total number earthquake victims on the planet over the past 500 years amounted to about 5 million people, almost half of them occurred in China. So in 1556 in the Chinese province. In Shaanxi, an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.1 killed 830 thousand people; in 1976, in the Tangshan region east of Beijing, an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 caused the death of 240 thousand people. according to official Chinese data (according to American seismologists, up to 1 million people). Extremely severe consequences are also associated with earthquakes in 1737 in Calcutta (India), when 300 thousand people died, in 1908 in Messina (Italy) - 120 thousand people, in 1923 in Tokyo - 143 thousand people. Large losses during earthquakes are usually associated with high population density, primitive construction methods, especially characteristic of poor areas, and it is not at all necessary that the earthquake be strong (for example, in 1960, as a result of a seismic shock with a magnitude of 5.8, up to 15 thousand people died . person in Agadir, Morocco). Natural phenomena - landslides, cracks play a lesser role. The catastrophic consequences of an earthquake can be prevented by improving the quality of buildings, since most people die under their rubble. It is also useful to take advice - during an earthquake, do not run out into the street, but rather take shelter in a doorway or under a strong slab or board (table) that can withstand the weight of the collapsing load. Forecasting and zoning of earthquakes The problem of earthquake forecasting based on observations of precursors (prediction of not only the location, but, most importantly, the time of a seismic event) is far from being solved, since none of the precursors can be considered reliable. There are isolated cases of exceptionally successful timely forecasts, for example, in 1975 in China an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.3 was very accurately predicted. In earthquake-prone areas, the construction of earthquake-resistant structures plays an important role (see Anti-seismic construction). Dividing the territory according to the degree of potential seismic hazard is part of the task of seismic zoning. It is based on the use of historical data (on the recurrence of seismic events, their strength) and instrumental observations of earthquakes, geological and geographical mapping and information on the movement of the earth’s crust. The zoning of the territory is also associated with the problem of insurance against earthquakes. Seismograph Instrumental observations first appeared in China, where in 132 Chang Hen invented the seismoscope, which was a skillfully made vessel. On the outside of the vessel, with a pendulum placed inside, the heads of dragons holding balls in their mouths were engraved in a circle. When the pendulum swung from the earthquake, one or more balls fell into the open mouths of frogs, placed at the base of the vessels so that the frogs could swallow them. A modern seismograph is a set of instruments that record ground vibrations during an earthquake and convert them into an electrical signal, recorded on seismograms in analogue and digital form. However, as before, the main sensitive element is a pendulum with a load. Seismic Service Constant observations of earthquakes are carried out by the Seismic Service. The modern global network includes St. 2000 stationary seismic stations, the data of which is systematically published in seismological bulletins and catalogues. In addition to stationary stations, expeditionary seismographs are used, including those installed on the ocean floor. Expedition seismographs were also sent to the Moon (where 5 seismographs annually record up to 3000 moonquakes), as well as to Mars and Venus. Anthropogenic earthquakes In the end. 20th century Technogenic human activity, which has assumed a planetary scale, has become the cause of induced (artificially caused) seismicity, which occurs, for example, during nuclear explosions (tests at the Nevada test site initiated thousands of seismic tremors), during the construction of reservoirs, the filling of which sometimes provokes strong earthquakes. This happened in India when the construction of the Koyna reservoir caused an 8.0 magnitude earthquake that killed 177 people. Study of earthquakes Seismology deals with the study of earthquakes. Seismic waves generated during earthquakes are also used to study internal structure Earth, achievements in this area served as the basis for the development of seismic exploration methods. Earthquakes have been observed since ancient times. Detailed historical descriptions that reliably indicate earthquakes since mid. 1 thousand BC e., given by the Japanese. Ancient scientists - Aristotle and others - also paid great attention to seismicity. Systematic instrumental observations began in the 2nd half. 19th century, led to the separation of seismology into an independent science (B. B. Golitsyn, E. Wichert, B. Gutenberg, A. Mohorovicich, F. Omori, etc.).

which originated in the late 70s of the 20th century on the wave of post-punk. Distinctive feature subculture is a special worldview that can be described as a “dark” perception of the world. The gothic subculture is diverse and heterogeneous, due to the fact that it cultivates individuality, however, many common features stand out for it, such as the love of gothic music (gothic rock, death rock, gothic metal, darkwave and other similar styles) , gloomy image (dominated by black color, mohawks, leather clothing, paraphernalia, symbols (ankh), fangs, lenses of unnatural colors, etc.), interest in mysticism and esotericism, decadence, misanthropy, melancholy, depressive states, love of horror -literature and films. In our time, the Gothic subculture has been divided into 2 streams: Mopey Goths and Perky Goths, their difference lies in the fact that the former are true supporters of this culture, both its visual and “internal” parts, and the latter only inherit them in style and are not gloomy, depressive fans of “non-standard black romance” and isolation. The early Goths differed from the punks only in the dominant color of their clothing and hair (with accents of white, red, blue or purple) and silver jewelry. They wore torn clothes and even mohawks, although the goths' mohawks were usually black and much wider than those of the punks (shaved only on the sides, at the temples). Many called them Dark Punks for their external similarity and at the same time dark difference. Goths also often used mesh in their clothes (usually sleeves for men) and had an original make-up style: a very white face with a lot of black eyeliner (for both men and women). Hair was usually curled and combed. Initially, men had short and combed hair, but towards the end of the 80s, long black hair became preferred, and now shaved on the sides and sticking up hair on Goths is much less common than long, flowing hair. Make-up remained part of the image, but clothing diversified: some now wear clothes with 18th or early 19th century influences, others wear vinyl, leather and mesh. And some of them wear both, although rarely at the same time. Black and white remain the dominant colors, although red, blue, purple or green (more common among Cyber ​​Goths) also appear occasionally. The most commonly used materials remain silk, crushed velvet, leather, vinyl and mesh. Purple, blue or dark green hair colors are also very popular. Goths have their own image, which has recently undergone significant changes. No matter how Gothic develops, two unchanged basic elements remain: the predominant black color of clothing (sometimes with elements of other colors), as well as exclusively silver jewelry (as a sign of contempt for gold, a symbol of ordinary, hackneyed values, the color of senselessly shed human blood, as well as the color of the sun, silver is the color of the moon). The girls have a bright, expressive Vamp style - thick black cosmetics, eyeliner, a range of lipstick and nail colors - from bright red (bloody) to black. Everything is catchy, sexy and strict. Goth girls (goth girls) every day look like a seductive nun or a medieval queen or something else. Goths, working in an environment where one cannot afford an extreme or individual approach to image, have developed the “corporate goth” style (Slave Goth or Corporate Slave Goth): black business clothes, discreet jewelry. Although gothic clothing is dominated by dark colors, it is very diverse in its manifestations: from an ordinary leather skirt for a girl to a clownish harlequin outfit for a boy. The general context brings together many styles and styles of clothing, although leather remains the most common and used material. Both a man and a Goth woman can dress almost the same - black cloaks or camisoles with a wide raised collar, a la Count Dracula, are acceptable for both. Girls most often wear corsets and long dresses. Romantic elements of past centuries often appear in the Gothic image: lace, frills, velvet, corsets, etc.

a finger
to finger (touch with fingers)
an escape (escape)
to escape (to run away, avoid)
a wish
to wish (to wish)
a shape (shape)
to shape (to give shape)
You need to make 2 sentences, including both a noun and an adjective in the sentence. But, if this complicates the situation. Can be done separately. Thank you very much in advance, English language experts;)

verb expressing a positive emotion.

signs, what part of speech are words with the ending -s and what function does this ending perform, i.e. does it serve:
a) indicator of the 3rd person singular person of the verb in Present Indefinite;
b) a plural sign of a noun;
c) indicator of the possessive case of a noun

1. My brother has many friends.
a) –s b) –s c) -s
2. This is my sister’s book.
a) –s b) –s c) -s

3. We often buy tomatoes and potatoes in the supermarket.
a) –s b) –s c) -s
4. Ann lives in Moscow.
a) –s b) –s c) -s
5. I am always in time for the lessons.
a) –s b) –s c) -s

II Rewrite the following sentences and translate them, paying attention to the peculiarities of translating into Russian definitions expressed by a noun.
1. There are different types of rocket motors.
2. Where is the sports goods department? It's on the fourth floor.
3. What is the room temperature?
4. This scientist got two State prizes.
5. There are some students on the sport ground.

Study the topic: degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
III. Run the test. Translate the sentences into Russian in writing.
1. She ___ than her sister.
a) tall b) taller c) more taller
2. You are even ___ than before.
a) more beautiful b) beautiful c) the most beautiful
3. I earn ___ than a postman.
a) little b) the least c) less
4. She is the ____ pupil in the school.
a) most intelligent b) more intelligent c) less intelligent
5. The ___ is the day, the ____ is the night.
a) taller … smaller b) shorter … longer c) more … worse

Study the topic: indefinite and negative pronouns.
IV. Run the test. Translate the sentences into Russian in writing.
1. He asked me ____ questions.
a) some b) any c) not any
2. I haven’t ___ money at all.
a) no b) some c) any
3. . Are the ____ pictures on the wall?
a) some b) any c) not any
4. There are ____ textbooks on the desk.
a) no b) no any c) any
5. You can buy stamps at ___ post office.
a) some b) no c) any

Study the topic: times of the Indefinite group (Present Indefinite, Past Indefinite, Future Indefinite).
V. Run the test. Translate the following sentences in writing:
1. I ___ John and Mary last week.
a) see b) saw c) shall see
2. I ___ live far from the center of town.
a) aren’t b) don’t c) isn’t
3. My boss ____ away for the next three days.
a) are b) were c) will be
4. Do you think this style ____ me?
a) suits b) suit c) shall suit
5. Harry ___ ill last week but now he is better.
a) is b) was c) will be

Section 5 Is the Earth a dangerous place?

b) hurricane
c) tornado
d) volcano
e) floods
f) drought

77 Match the words and texts. Listen and check your answers.

Match the words with the texts. Listen to the tape and check (howl answers.
1) - B) An earthquake is an unexpected shaking of the earth.
2) - C) Hurricane - strong wind or storm.
3) - D) Tornado - a strong wind in a funnel of air that rotates at high speed.
4) - E) A volcano is a mountain with a hole in the middle, which is called a crater. Sometimes lava and gases are ejected from the crater.
5) - A) Flood - a large amount of water covering the land.
6) - F) Drought - a long period of dry weather when there is not enough water.

78 Listen to the tape and fill in the table.

79 Read and translate the phrases. Use them in your sentences.

80 You are going to read a text about an earthquake. Before you start reading, discuss with your partner what you know about earthquakes. Write down the facts you talked about.

81 Read the text and find out if it contains information that is new to you. Which?
Yankee earthquake
“I was at school,” Juan said. “The date May 31, 1970 was written on the board in large white letters. The letters began to dance before my eyes. But there were only a few empty cars outside.”
“Did you fall asleep?”
“No, I looked out the window. It was noisy there, as if a large truck was driving down the street. But there were only a few empty cars outside."
“What was making the noise?”
“He came from the earth. The cars started jumping up and down. Then the classroom clock fell from the wall and the window broke. I was scared. I ran out of the school into the street. As I ran, houses began to fall. The ground moved under my feet. I knew that...”
"What did you know?"
“I knew it was an earthquake. I ran to the fields. I heard roars and screams behind me. I turned around only when I reached the second field. I couldn’t believe my eyes. Almost all the buildings were on the ground. Ahead of me, the earth moved up and down like the sea.”
"What did you do?"
“At first nothing. Then I heard another sound, as if guns were thundering. He came from the mountains. I looked up as a nearby mountain began to fly towards me! I ran and swam across the river. On the opposite bank I started running again. A strong wind carried me forward. Then the earth and snow fell on me...” “Snow?”
“Yes, snow from the mountains. The earthquake broke off a large piece of the mountain..."
“How many people died?” Mark asked.
“50,000 people were killed and another 100,000 were injured. About a million people lost their homes, i.e. every thirteenth resident of Peru. I think it was the worst earthquake that ever happened."
Mark looked at his notebook again.
“In 1556 there was an earthquake in China. 830,000 people died then. In Japan in 1923, 142,000 people died in an earthquake.”

82 Answer the questions.
1. When did the Ungai earthquake occur?
2. How did it start?
3. What did Juan see and hear?
4. What happened to the boy?
5. Was the Ungai earthquake the worst?
6. Has there ever been an earthquake or other disaster in your area? Tell us about your experience.

83 Give five nouns, five verbs, five adjectives and five adverbs that can be used to describe an earthquake.

84 Read and learn.
Past simple
We use the past simple when talking about:
Relation to the past habit or state
completed actions with temporary words (see below)

Past continuous
We use the Past Continuous to talk about:
something that was in progress during a certain period of time in the past
something that happened in the middle of another action or event in the past
Compare:
- Listen! Why didn't you answer my calls yesterday? What were you doing at six o'clock in the evening?
- I was waiting for my family at the metro stop at that time.
- What did you do then?
- We went to the theater together.
- I hope you liked it!

85 Put the verbs into the correct form: past continuous or past simple.
A.
1. was playing - Yesterday at five o’clock in the evening she was playing computer games.
2. destroyed - Last spring, a flood destroyed half of the city.
3. was badly hurt - He was seriously injured during the earthquake.
4. was reading - Yesterday morning the girl was reading a book.
5. was launched - Spacecraft launched in 1995.

B.
1. were you doing, it started raining, were walking "_.- What were you doing when it started raining?
- We were walking in the park.
2. were doing, came in - They solved a crossword puzzle or did homework when did you scream?
3. were they standing, saw - Where were they standing when you saw them?
4. was Linda doing, came in - What was Linda doing when I came in?
5. were they working - What were they working on yesterday at five o’clock in the evening?

86 Put the verbs into the correct form: past continuous or past simple.
Example: She was preparing dinner when an earthquake shook the city.- She was preparing dinner when an earthquake shook the city.
1 The fire destroyed most of the buildings while he was sleeping.
2 When they were driving around the country they saw a tornado.
3 The girl was shaking with laughter when her mother entered.
4 The rain was heavy when she left the house.
5 Where were you standing when you...heard the scream?
6 When we found the puppy, he was shaking like a leaf.
7 He was writing about disasters when I called him.

87 Read, translate and learn: to destroy / to break / to damage.
1. to break - to divide something into parts with sudden force
a) If you break something, it either breaks into pieces or stops working.
b) The boy broke his chair.
c) She fell down the stairs and broke her leg.
d) My watch is broken. I have to fix them as soon as possible.
2. destroy - damage something so badly that it can no longer be repaired; destroy.
a) The flood destroyed a small town.
b) During the hurricane, about two hundred houses were destroyed.
c) We were shown a video about the destructive power of a tornado.
d) The earthquake caused severe destruction.
3. damage - to spoil or break something so that it does not work correctly or looks different from what it used to be.
a) The building was heavily damaged by flood.
b) The drought caused great damage.
c) The hurricane caused damage to houses in the area.
d) You should be aware of the harm that smoking can cause to your health.

88 We work in pairs. Try to explain to your partners what a tornado is. Use exercise 77.

89 Read the text. Use information from the text as you Explain.

Tornadoes are the most powerful storms. No one can predict what they might do.
Tornadoes destroy houses, carry away cars and telephone booths. Tornadoes consist of very strong winds. They can reach speeds of 320 kilometers per hour. That's why they are so dangerous.
During one of the tornadoes in Russia, people saw money flying from the sky. At least a thousand coins fell from the clouds. The wind lifted earth and coins from some buried treasure.
Tornadoes occur all over the world, but especially in the United States. Tornadoes are probably more common in central areas than anywhere else in the world.
Tornadoes happen in the spring. The most likely time for these dangerous storms to begin is during a hot day in the afternoon or evening. Large clouds appear in the sky. They get darker and darker. The sounds of thunder are heard in the distance. Bright flashes of lightning are visible. The cloud then forms a funnel and begins to rotate. It moves faster and faster. The faster it moves, the louder the noise. If the funnel touches the ground, it picks up whatever weight it can. Strong winds of a tornado destroy almost everything in its path.
Fortunately, tornadoes can be predicted, giving people a better chance of protecting themselves.

Presumably composed of partially molten rock.

"Ahah". A type of lava flow that produces an uneven, cracked surface after hardening.

Basalt. A dark volcanic rock formed when lava cools.

Volcanic mud flow. A mixture of volcanic ash, rock debris, melting ice and snow that flows down the slope of a volcano during an eruption.

Volcanic ash. Very small particles of rock and lava formed during a violent eruption.

Geyser. Fountain hot water and steam formed by groundwater heated by hot rock.

Hydrothermal vent. An opening in the seabed, usually near the midline ridge, from which heated, mineral-rich water flows into the cold ocean waters.

"Hot spot". The area of ​​the earth's interior where thermal energy, rising from the mantle, burns through the earth's crust, forming on the surface.

hot spring. Hot water that rises to the surface of the land or seabed, heated by hot rock underground.

Plate boundary. The edge of the plate where most earthquakes occur and where most volcanoes occur.

Groundwater. Rainy or sea ​​water, seeped underground through cracks or small spaces between rock particles.

Volcano mouth. A hole in the earth's surface through which magma, volcanic gases, or steam erupts.

Bark. The solid outer shell of the Earth.

Crater. A deep depression that appears around the mouth of some volcanoes.

Lava. Magma bursting to the surface of the earth.

Lava pillow. Lava solidifying into pillow shapes. It acquires this shape because it is poured into water and cools very quickly.

Lava flow. A river of molten rock that flows from a volcano during some eruptions.

Lava fountain. A stream of liquid lava, taking off under the pressure of volcanic gases accumulated in the earth's crust.

Lithosphere. The solid layer of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and top part mantle. broken into a number of huge pieces called slabs.

Magma. Molten (liquid) rock in the Earth's interior, consisting primarily of molten minerals, dissolved gases, and water.

Magma chamber. The area beneath a volcano where magma accumulates.

Mantle. The thickest layer of the Earth, lying between the crust and core. Consists of the lower mantle, asthenosphere and part of the lithosphere.

Slow shift. Gradual movement of rock along a fault without causing an earthquake.

Mineral. Natural substance of a certain chemical composition, which is of inorganic origin. The collection of mineral particles forms rocks.

Ocean trench. A very deep underwater valley formed at the boundary of two plates that are moving towards each other, with one of them plunging under the other.

Precipitation. Crushed rock, such as sand or silt, that is crushed and deposited in layers on the seafloor by the action of wind, water, or ice.

Island arc. A chain of volcanic islands formed near the boundary of two plates that are moving towards each other.

Earthquake source. A fault point where sudden rock displacement occurs, causing an earthquake.

"Pa-hoe-hoe". A type of lava flow that produces a smooth or wrinkled surface after hardening.

Ash. Cm. Volcanic ash.

Pyroclastic flow (also called "nue ardant"). incredibly hot gas and volcanic ash rushing at great speed along the slope of a volcano during an eruption.

Pyroclasts. Chunks of rock, lava, and volcanic ash ejected by a volcano during a violent eruption.

Plate. One of the huge pieces of the lithosphere, which together form the solid surface of the Earth.

Aftershocks. Small earthquakes and ground tremors caused by subsidence of rock after the main earthquake.

Fault. A break or crack in the rock along which movement occurs.

Soil erosion. The process that occurs during an earthquake, when seismic waves shake wet sand or other loose sediments, making the soil extremely unstable due to the supersaturation of its upper layer with moisture.

Seabed spreading. The process of expansion of the oceans due to the fact that the plates that form the bottom move apart, and magma rises to form a new ocean floor at the median ridges.

Seismic waves. Shock waves that travel from the source of an earthquake in all directions across the Earth.

Middle, or mid-ocean, ridge. A chain of underwater volcanoes that form on the ocean floor at the boundary of two moving plates as the seafloor expands.

Subductive zone. An area at the boundary of two plates where one plate subducts under the other.

Plate tectonics. Processes that occur when plates move through the asthenosphere and change the location, size and shape of continents and oceans.

Fumarole. A small hole in the ground through which volcanic gases escape.

Tsunami. A series of huge ocean waves generated during a strong earthquake or volcanic eruption on the seabed or on land near the coast.

Mercalli scale. A scale, based primarily on eyewitness accounts, that measures the intensity of an earthquake or the number of tremors at various points on the earth's surface.

Richter scale. A scale on which the magnitude of an earthquake is measured, that is, the amount of energy released during it.

Epicenter. A point on the earth's surface directly above the source of the earthquake.

Core. The central part of the Earth, lying under the mantle. It is divided into an outer core, which is in a molten state, and an inner core, which is presumably solid.